There's nothing like a good old-fashioned canoe adventure. Movie poster from "Deliverance." Via Cinema Masterpieces.

An inexpensive alternative to hand-carved wooden canoes (which are very nice thank you, à la Mad River) was inevitable but it was the end of WWII that precipitated the rush. In terms of production it was a perfect storm of war-accelerated technology and idle airplane factories. In terms of demand, there was a new perception and importance placed on leisure after WWII, with young marrieds and their families enjoying their hard fought freedoms.

Fishing, and so canoeing and boating, was one of the activities that exploded in the 50s… look at any Kodachrome collection you can find and damn me if every third plaid-shirted man isn’t holding up a string of trout or stripers with his son in tow.

“The country had been through a long, tough war. Now it wanted to sit back and relax. And it seemed most of the people wanted to do it with a fishing rod in their hands.” –Gadabout Gaddis, The Flying Fisherman

A relaxing day on the water with a best friend and a canoe, New Hampshire. Image by Katie Barnes.

Modern canoe shapes are not a million miles away from the birchbark canoes of the Algonquian Indians. Wood/canvas canoes reigned supreme until the 1940s, when the technicians in the Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporation turned their aluminum airplane-fabricating talents to canoe building.

Shore leave. A stack of land-bound aluminum canoes. Image from the Wisconsin Historical Society.

According to company lore, after carrying a heavy wood-and-canvas canoe through the Adirondacks, VP William Hoffman had an epiphany: use Grumman’s aluminum to make lightweight canoes. They made fighter planes from it… why not canoes? By 1945 they had produced a 38-pound, 13-foot canoe prototype. The process to create an aluminum canoe is to stretch aluminum sheets over a mold. Gunwale, bow, and stern plates are riveted on and soldered for reinforcement — no artisanal perfection needed. As the war drew down, Grumman gave over 20,000 feet of their factory to manufacturing aluminum canoes, creating a price point below that of wooden canoes.

Several other companies sprang up to fill this new aluminum craft sector, including Lund in Minnesota (started by another aircraft factory worker).

Paddling hard in a wooden canoe.

In 1972 the film version of the novel Deliverance was released. At the least it provides dark commentary on man’s destruction of nature but also his fragility in the face of other forces. Though it has since been (mis)appropriated as shorthand for vile backwoods subcultures, the movie nevertheless spurred another boom in “paddling.” And an aluminum Grumman canoe was used throughout filming. If you haven’t seen the film recently, go read this memoir from Christopher Dickey (son of James Dickey, author of Deliverance and its screenplay). You get a general sense of foreboding during the shot and more information than you cared to know about a certain pivotal scene…

In Canoe passages: Cross-cultural conveyance in United States and Canadian literature, it is noted that as well as the general post-WWII boom in recreation, Canadians took up canoeing in large numbers as a symbol of their cultural independence from the U.S. and Britain (under whom they are Commonwealth subject). File this under “another log on the fire”.

A dog sitting proudly by his pull of Canadian geese while future dead geese mill about. Image by "wildturkeyhunter."

Aluminum has a “memory”, meaning it doesn’t bounce back into shape, and tends to get stuck on rocks. Dents can be fixed with a rubber mallet (or what we call “the persuader” at home) and a wood block, though there will always be a mark. Other drawbacks include the metal being cold to the touch in spring and searing hot in summer. Plus, the nostalgic hollow clang of aluminum against paddle is noisy at any time of year, thus making it less useful for hunting. Aluminum canoe sales still thrive due to their high strength to weight ratio and ease of maintenance. They won’t delam’, waterlog or rot. Field & Stream noted dryly in 1969, “Furthermore, they’re fireproof.”

The languid lifestyle of a canoeing man, as envisioned by Pendleton.

“We virtually kept the canoe from disappearing.” said Greg Harvey, sales manager at Marathon Boat Group (formerly Grumman). He may be right.

Land hunting with a wooden canoe. Image via Shorpy.

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Crest of the Worshipful Company of Pewterers in London, Livery Company, founded 1348

Despite generations of heirloom silver sets, eating is when pewter most shines. Non-reactive, tarnish-free, and taste-less, it was used by the ancient Egyptians, prized by the Romans, and may have given Caesar cause to invade Britain, a land rich in the metals essential to its production. King Edward is said to have had over 300 dishes of the stuff — not a single one made of silver.

Ironically, tin (the main constituent of pewter) is considered “poor,” a term referring to the metals that sit in the corner of the periodic table that are soft and quick to melt. It is also considered by some to be “the poor man’s silver.” In truth, Tin is what gives pewter many of its beneficial attributes, making it a great alternative to silverware or earthenware. For this reason, pewter has also been called “the rich man’s ceramic.”

Louis Bernard working with Pewter, image via lempreintecoop.com

Though this most valuable metal alloy has been used since ancient times, it took craftsmen centuries to get it right. Toughening up tin without compromising its food-worthiness required a pinch of this and a little of that. (I imagine cloaked men milling around a boiling cauldron of tin, pouring contents from unmarked packages until just right.) “This” and “that” happened to be copper, antimony, bismuth, and — in the days before people knew better — lead. A high tin content meant a light alloy with a brighter finish but less strength. Considering it was more pleasant to sip ale out of a light shiny tankard than a dull one as heavy as pig-iron, craftsman continued searching for the perfect balance of strength and luster. The line for safe, high quality pewter was finally drawn at the 92% tin mark.

CRAFTING QUALITY

Those who could get their pewter to shine without having it crumple eventually formed craft guilds, strict organizations that acted as both educational institutions and regulatory agencies. Nuremburg, London, Limoges and Montpellier became important centers of pewter making as guilds in these cities carefully guarded their secrets. They trained apprentices and journeymen, allowing only the best to acquire the title of “master craftsman.” The rise to master, however, was tightly controlled — no one earned the title without the right letters, stamps and experience. The finished product was closely scrutinized, and only those that adhered to strict guild requirements received their own touchmarks, those embossed stamps which distinguished one craftsman’s work from another.

Pewter Touchmark, image via antique-shop.com

Just as apprenticeship was the equivalent to a college education, a touchmark was a craftsman’s brand. It also created a sense of accountability; if a piece wasn’t up to snuff, the buyer knew exactly where and who to complain to. Touchmarks also became marks of distinction. The crowned X, for example, indicated a high level of craftsmanship, while the date and initials of the reigning monarch proved it had passed inspection.

In the 16th and 17th centuries, the demand for quality pewter increased dramatically, and guilds reached their height of production. Bright-eyed apprentices trained from four to six years, carving molds, pouring molten metals, and learning decorative techniques, while journeymen spread knowledge imparted by their village masters. For several generations guilds continued to supply taverns and homes alike with fine tableware. Consumers drank heartily from pewter mugs, poured thick gravy from pewter ladles over food served on pewter platters, and sipped soup from pewter bowls.

18th Century pewter lidded quart measure, with fleur-de-lys hinge and scrolled thumbpiece, image via georgekidner.co.uk

Inevitably, the industry was undermined by the very forces that regulated it. Innovation was stifled by the guild itself; the comfort of being in the bosom of a protected industry engendered laziness. Many craft guilds — including pewterers — lost the respect of the public as concern for quality fell dramatically. So irritating was this royalty-appointed system that revolutionaries the likes of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Adam Smith and Karl Marx immortalized their names debunking it.

Soon many protected craft trades, including the pewter trade, gave way to modern industrialized mechanization, electroplating, and the transition to porcelain and steel tableware. Faster production processes ultimately pushed the pewter industry into a specialty items category.

Pewter Tea Pot, image via capesdunn.com

Today, it’s much easier to find a ceramic bowl than a pewter one in your local store, but the metal maintains a strong following among collectors.  In more recent years, the gentleman’s flask has regained appreciation, and a lovely pewter plate is still a classy gift. Pewter pieces — once the durable and practical workhorse of the dinner table — may now just be tucked away for special occasions, but it’s still as strong, shiny and “taste-less” as ever.

German Stein with pewter lid, "A full stein is always my friend", image via garykirsnerauctions.com

FURTHER READING

The Worshipful Company of Pewterers

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Gas Station by Arne Jacobsen, 1937

However, rather than disappearing into oblivion, Jacobsen became famous. Today, he has more products still in production than the Eameses. When he died suddenly in 1971, he left unfinished the Danish National Bank, the Danish Embassy in London, and a burgeoning legacy. It took 30 years for trends to catch up to Jacobsen, but today he is a national icon in Denmark and a crucial figure in one of the country’s most prominent exports — design.

Arne Jacobsen

GETTING GESAMTKUNSTWERK
Born in Copenhagen, Jacobsen (1902–1971) was encouraged from an early age to professionalize his artistic talents, and after studying architecture at the Danish Royal Academy of Art, he ran his own architecture firm. His limited success did not stop him, it took the Nazi occupation of Denmark to put an end to his practice. Like all Danish Jews, Jacobsen was forced to flee the country. He crossed the Öresun Sound to neutral Sweden, where he was exiled for two years, making prints for textiles and wallpaper.

When he returned to Denmark, Jacobsen began a new phase of his creative career in which he was more than just an architect. And unlike his design contemporaries in war-torn Germany, Austria and France, who were consumed with rebuilding even the most basic infrastructure, Jacobsen could turn his focus to product design.

Arne Jacobsen believed in Gesamtkunstwerk — the total environment — harmonizing the interior with the exterior. Jacobsen took up product design in order to fully complete his visions. For the buildings he constructed, he also designed wallpaper, furniture, textiles, and even made light fixtures to go along with it. There was a sense of beauty in everything Jacobsen touched but also a strong commitment to utility, practicality and simplicity in line and form.

Room at the SAS Royal Hotel, Copenhagen (1958–60)

Unlike his Constructionist and Bauhaus predecessors, however, Jacobsen, along with other Scandanavian designers, chose softer more organic forms and materials over the harsh, cold and rigid angularity of prewar designs.

Arne Jacobsen designed faucet for Vola

Jacobsen affected a curmudgeonly public demeanor, but his designs tested boundaries and remained playful. Chairs were shaped like eggs, forks curiously small. Dining chairs seemed to have wings to fly, and condiment jars were shaped like enormous drops of water.

Candle holder designed by Arne Jacobsen

Despite being a teetotaler, Jacobsen designed a bar set called Cylinda, manufactured by Stelton, a company run by his step-son. Cylinda featured all of one’s bar needs, from ashtrays to cocktails mixers and ice buckets, but was nevertheless unpopular. Legend has it that the sales of Cylinda were so poor that Jacobsen’s daughter-in-law went to the store incognito to buy it  in order to give the impression of Cylinda’s marketability.

Cylinda Coffee Pot for Stelton, designed in 1967

Fortunately, Cylinda followed in the arc of Jacobsens’ career. Three decades after it was originally designed, Cylinda was finally discovered by the tide of popular taste.

FURTHER READING
A Good Argument by Peter Hall, D-Crit Reading Room, the School of Visual Arts
Gallery, Arne Jacobsen

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Calder, Untitled (Mobile), 1959, Courtesy of The JPMorgan Chase Art Collection

Fascinated by kinetics, by movement and physics, Calder studied engineering and would go on to find work as an automotive and hydraulics engineer, before committing himself entirely to art. In the early 1920s, Calder settled in New York, adopting the bohemian life of the era and working for hire as an illustrator. Eventually, Calder would follow the wave of creative expats relocating to Paris. It was in France where he would begin to sculpt his first major works.

Calder's Studio on the Rue de la Colonie, Paris, 1931, Photo by Marc Vaux

Utilizing metal wire as a flexible alternative to harder metals, Calder discovered a method of bending and cutting which allowed him to create complex images and shapes – among these – portraits of his circle of friends, which included the artists Marcel Duchamp and Joan Miro.

Meanwhile, Calder was also experimenting with abstract painting, more sculptures (both wood and metal) and classic illustration. Finally, in 1931, he experienced a tremendous breakthrough. By marrying his artistic explorations with his engineering skills Calder created his first truly kinetic sculptures, a series of objects powered by motors and cranks and which his colleague Duchamp dubbed “mobiles.” Calder’s invention literally created a new form of art, a genre to which he was immediately devoted.

Feathers, 1931, Wire, wood, lead & paint 38 1/2 x 32 x 16 in., Courtesy of Calder Foundation

These mobiles were a revelation, hanging, moving works which seem suspended in air and powered by invisible forces. Formed of floating bits of colored metal, each piece cut into abstract yet simple shapes – teardrops, triangles – they were both playful and mysterious. The mobiles would come in all shapes and sizes, some suited to hang in sunlit window, others to be suspended above the massive entries of public buildings. No matter the size, Calder had hit upon something truly unique. There had been nothing quite like them before, and his colorful mobiles went on to become a worldwide sensation.

Rouge Triomphant, 1963, sheet metal, rod & paint 110 x 230 x 180 in., Courtesy of O'Hara Gallery

After returning to the States in the mid-1930s, Calder was embraced by the American art world, hired to create sets for Martha Graham ballets and construct massive versions of his sculpture in outdoor public displays. Some of these monumental works include everything from an enormous mobile for JFK airport in New York to a 67 foot tall piece that welcomed visitors to the Olympic Games in Mexico City.

Alexander Calder, Roaring with his Circus Lion, 1971, Courtesy of Calder Foudation.

Today Calder’s works are reproduced in large numbers, and his hanging mobiles, colorful and complex works of moving Modern art, mark his legacy as one of the most prolific and imaginative artists of the 20th Century.

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Joe Magarac Squeezes Steel Rails between his Fingers, Courtesy of the Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh

While the college world outside our doors wandered from one humdrum kegger to another, Roberto was hosting dinner parties that I’ve never been able to replicate: course after course, beginning with oysters on the half shell, fondue, marching through to trout almondine and always ending with his signature banana flambé. Throughout these nights, the mess grew ever worse, pans atop bowls, which horrified his true foreign exchange roommates. Roberto — laughing with a cavalier flair — never cleaned a thing until the next morning once he’d pulled a few shots from his Pavoni Espresso machine. Except for his knives.

Roberto had a beautiful set of vintage Sabatier knives. Always carefully oiling, and constantly drying and wiping his knives after every cut, they’d taken on slight patina (which actually helps protect them from rust). He explained that was from the high carbon content in the steel. Making them thinner, sharper and better knives, but more susceptible to stains.

Sabatier Knives

While all steel has carbon in it, in typical knives, even many of the higher end drop-forged knives we’re familiar with, the carbon content is lower. This makes the steel more stain resistant, and more ductile, easier to bend and more resistant to cracking.

But while pluses to stainless knives abound, the beauty and craftsmanship of a higher carbon knife makes these the choice for the more patient and dedicated carver. Carbon steel knives can be sharpened to a finer point and can hold an edge longer. When needed, they’re easier to sharpen. Also, producers can make a thinner blade with carbon steel, resulting in a more ergonomic blade and handle.

U.S. Steel Workers at South Works, Courtesy of Pullman State Historic Site

A stainless steel knife, the more common knives today, don’t rust and tend not to pick up stains. Anyone who has left a knife of any sort in salty water overnight, or gone to bed with out wiping the tomato juice and seeds off their knife left on the counter, can attest that even the most “stainless” of knives should rather be called stain resistant. That said, if this occurs with a high carbon knife, like those found in the Thiers Region of France, it would require ages of scrubbing and a healthy dose of mineral oil to remedy this mishap.

Because all steel contains carbon, there’s no hard and fast rule for what constitutes a carbon steel knife. If true strength and function is your aim, and you’re willing to spend the time wiping and drying these knives, then the best, like the classic French knives, have a carbon content above .60%. More commonly, well-made, high-end knives today will have a carbon content hovering between .55% and .60%.

FURTHER READING:

Sarah Jay. Knives Cooks Love: Selection. Care. Techniques. Recipes. Andrew McMeel Publishing, 2008.

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The Beatles, 1965

Hanway was most certainly in the public eye, but it was not his social work or the circles in which he ran that fascinated the average Londoner. He is remembered over 200 years later for what he carried over his head, that common and most benign accessory, the umbrella.

Jonas Hanway, The First Englishmen who Ever Carried an Umbrella

Hanway’s umbrella was, of course, a take on the parasol, an object that had done its own share of traveling. Since 2400 B.C.E., it had been carried over the heads of the nobility throughout the Middle and Far East. In this part of the world, the man of respectable station, wanting to distinguish himself from the masses, kept his skin fair by shielding himself from the sun. The parasol had entered the Middle Ages, held high over the heads of Catholic popes and bishops, serving as a sort of flag or standard. As the Church’s influence waned, the ombrello or “little shadow” had become a fashionable article among Italian women before making its way north.

Charles Le Brun, Chancellor Séguier and his Suite, Circa 1670, Musée du Louvre

By the turn of the 18th century, waterproof materials were added, making it useful for protection from the rain.  In 1709, the Frenchman Jean Marius, a master purse maker with an eye for trends, designed a folding version which was lightweight and chic. Soon every sophisticated Parisian was seen carrying a parapluie. These pricey accessories complemented their attire and kept their coiffed heads dry — no proper lady would be caught in public without one.

The Execution of the Lincoln Assassination Conspirators, July 7, 1865

And apparently no English gentleman would be caught in public with one. For nearly 30 years, Jonas Hanway stubbornly weathered the ridicule of the London public, promoting the umbrella as an incredibly useful tool that would democratize the city streets (and put a serious dent in the coach industry). His persistence paid off: Savvy London shops began to carry their own umbrellas, much to the disappointment of the city taxi coaches. By the early 19th century this handy tool had evolved somewhat and was now made with leather or oiled canvas. And the umbrella could be used to protect more than one’s wig from the rain: the Duke of Wellington — the victor of Waterloo — was said to have one weighing ten pounds with a concealed a dagger in its handle. Heavy, yes, but what better tool to fend off potential attackers?

Immigration Protest in Canada, Courtesy of Ontario Coalition Against Poverty

As most of the weight was attributed to its whalebone ribbing, manufacturers sought out lighter materials and finishes. Steel was a godsend, making it easier to fashion thinner support ribs. U-shaped steel rods came in the 1850s. Ribs and stretchers became increasingly lighter and stronger. (Steel remains the metal of choice for umbrella ribs and frames, but manufacturers continue to experiment with fiberglass and carbon fiber shafts to reduce weight.) Heavy oiled leather and canvas have long been replaced. In a well-made umbrella, the canopy is now made of 6–12 hand-sewn panels of nylon with a rating of 190T (threads per inch) that are coated with acrylic underneath and a scotch guard application on top.

Craig Wylie, 2008, Oil On Canvas

Though new innovations in construction have created a lighter umbrella, the majority of modern versions are of poor quality (as can be seen by the number of twisted wrecks left laying in gutters after a heavy storm). The better models are worth the extra cost, as they will often last a lifetime and do what they were intended to do — protect our heads from the elements.

A Brooklyn Invention, 1936 (Click on Image to Read Copy)

FURTHER READING:

William Sangster. Umbrellas and Their History. Effingham Wilson, Royal Exchange, London. 1855.

Broken Umbrella Project

Russian blog with great umbrella images throughout history

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32.15 Ounces of .9999 Fine Gold (24k), Today's Value: $ 35,898

So exactly what is it about gold, outside of its relative monetization, that holds such sway over us? It’s simple really. Gold is magic in its most tactile state.

Gold Panning, 1918

Useless as a metal for most practical purposes, gold has always been more endemic to creative pursuits and abstract principles. After being minted and used as coins by the Lydians in 635 BC, it eventually proved to be the touchstone that helped define our current model of fiat currency. It still hedges any hiccups our burgeoning new economy may suffer, but this is nothing compared to the effect it has had on the collective imagination of mankind.

Lyidan 'Gold Stater', One of the World's First Coin's, Courtesy of Money Museum

In hermetic mysticism, as well as the basic Italian tarot, gold coins represent the best things this earthly plane has to offer (distinct from the planes of intellect, compassion and intuition). In the Bible it was Jehovah’s material of choice for his first tabernacle: “Though shalt overlay it with pure gold,” He instructs Moses on Mount Sinai, “within and without shalt though overlay it, and shalt make upon it a crown of gold round about.” Even Columbus’ trip to the Americas was primarily a gold prospect in order to buy back the Holy Sepulchre from the Muslims. Allah seems to like a little bling-bling himself.

Fabergé Egg 'Romanov Tercentenary', 1913

As the metal of the muses, nothing sings more in the hands of a gifted artist. More than any other medium, its physical properties seem to dictate the content of the work produced. Soft, lustrous and gleaming, the character of goldwork always seems to lean toward the glorious. Indeed the House of Fabergé was primarily a house of goldsmiths. Even scampish young British artists forgo their usual fecal forms and vivisected invective when they get their hands on a chunk. In 2008, the British artist Marc Quinn veered away from his usual grotesque fare when given the opportunity to work with £1.5 million worth of solid gold, opting instead to make the most beautiful thing possible: Kate Moss with her legs pinned behind her head.

Kate Moss in Gold: 'Siren', by Marc Quinn

Gold is a noble metal – it does not react with most elements. That means it is usually found in its native form and nearly lasts forever. 4,500-year-old Egyptian dental work is said to be good enough for today’s mouths. There is no colloquial accounting for the style and quality of pure gold as could be applied to salt, cheese or rap music. 24k gold is 24k gold. Its only real measure of luxury outside of the ebb and flow of demand is what is done with it.

California Gold Rush Handbill, 1849

FURTHER READING:

Peter L. Bernstein. The Power of Gold: History of an Obsession, John Riley & Sons, Inc. 2000.

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Frozen Fried Shrimp Dinner with Tangy Cocktail Sauce for Extra "Home Style" Touch

Soda cans, furniture, cookware, structural building supports – the number of products made with the ubiquitous material is endless. Incredibly light, non-rusting, fully recyclable, cheap, and in seemingly limitless supply, it is the metallic element of choice for an extraordinary number of everyday goods. It cannot be denied that aluminum is a miraculous metal whose industrial and commercial applications have revolutionized the modern world. Yet it is most common in products we use in our everyday personal life, and its positive aspects, especially in regards to its contact with the foods we consume, is more questionable.

Aluminum is found in buffered aspirin, most antiperspirants (as aluminum chlorhydrate), antacids, and in shampoo (as aluminum lauryl sulfate or magnesium aluminum silicate). The “miracle” metal is also found in many foods: cake mixes, self-rising flour, prepared doughs, nondairy creamers, pickles, some baking powders, and many processed cheeses. We seem to be either rubbing it on our bodies or ingesting it or pouring it on something on a daily basis, and have been doing so for years, and concern is steadily on the rise.

Secret Anti-Perspirant Advertising, 1969

HISTORY OF ALUMINUM

Aluminum is the third most abundant element of the Earth’s crust, behind that oxygen and silicone, but foremost among all metals, adding up to 7.3% by mass of the earth’s crust. Industrial aluminum is a rather “young” metal (it has only been produced for commercial purposes for a century and a half), but have been using it in its natural form for much longer. 7,000 years ago, Persians made their strongest pottery out of clay containing aluminum oxide. Three millennia later, ancient Egyptians were using  aluminum compounds in medicines, dyes, and cosmetics. The Romans used various aluminum compounds as astringents; they called these alum, or the Latin alumen, giving the metal the origin of its modern name.

Bauxite: Aluminum Ore

Aluminum does not occur naturally in its elemental state. In 1821 Pierre Berthier discovered a clay-like material that contained 52 percent aluminum oxide outside the small village of Les Baux in the south of France. In reference to the place of this most significant of discoveries, he gave the material the name bauxite. He did not realize it at the time, but he had discovered the aluminum ore.

The first commercial process of extracting aluminum was created in 1854 by Henri Sainte-Claire Deville of France, and by 1855 he was able to create enough aluminum for display at the Paris Exposition of that year. Billed as “silver from clay,” aluminum bars were shown alongside France’s crown jewels. The juxtaposition was fitting: rubies, emeralds and sapphires consist mainly of crystalline aluminum oxide. At that time, pure aluminum was valued at $115 per pound — more expensive than gold. Napoleon III proudly displayed aluminum cutlery at his state banquets, commissioned aluminum equipment for his military and even had an aluminum and gold baby rattle made for his son.

B-24 Assembly Hall, 1943 / Courtesy of Shorpy

In 1886, after years of experimentation by many scientists and industrialists, Charles Martin Hall of the United States and Paul L.T. Héroult of France — both 22 years old — independently discovered a way to produce aluminum cheaply. Hall developed a method for “reducing” aluminum oxide, called alumina, to pure aluminum by electrolysis. In the electrolytic cell, alumina is dissolved in molten cryolite. A strong electric current passes through the solution and removes the oxygen, leaving deposits of nearly pure aluminum on the bottom of the bath. This method — called the Hall–Héroult process — is still used today.

Club Aluminum Advertising, 1946

Two years later, Hall founded the Pittsburgh Reduction Company (which would in 1907, be renamed Aluminum Company of America, and become the largest producer of aluminum in America). Before the end of 1888, Hall had produced the first commercial aluminum. As Hall improved his process, the price of aluminum ingots dropped from $4.86 per pound in 1888 to 78 cents per pound in 1893.

Industrialists were at first reluctant to use unfamiliar aluminum, but business grew as manufacturers grasped the benefits of this light yet strong metal. In the mid-1930s, industrial designer Henry Dreyfuss predicted that “aluminum will play a large and significant part” in the “greatest period of redesign the world has known.” By the late 1930s, a pound of aluminum cost just 20 cents, and its uses numbered more than 2,000.

As is often the case (and almost always for the winning side), war was very good for business. During World War II, demand doubled as the cheap, durable material spawned a new generation of aircraft, automobiles, cooking utensils, foil, electric wire and cable. There has been no going back since. Aluminum is ubiquitous in our modern world. Other metals, such as copper, lead, and tin have been mined and used by humans for millennia, but nothing compares to the exploitation of aluminum. More aluminum is produced today than all other non-ferrous metals put together.

The Aluminum Association Advertising, 1967 (Click on Image for Details)

ALUMINUM HEALTH CONCERNS

The bulk of the health discussion centers around whether there is a link between the absorption of aluminum and Alzheimer’s disease. The idea was first introduced in the early 1960s, when neurologist Igor Klatzo at the National Institutes of Health led a study of the workings of the immune system in the brain. When Klatzo injected various solutions into the brains of rabbits to observe immune response, the animals went into severe convulsions. Investigating further, Klatzo learned that it was not active ingredients in the solutions that caused this response, but aluminum added to the solution to aid in their action. Klatzo also observed that brain cells appeared to have suffered a kind of microscopic degeneration in the form of ‘plaques’ and ‘tangles’ which were also characteristic of Alzheimer’s patients.

Neuropathologist Alois Alzheimer (1864 - 1915)

A few years later, researchers at the University of Toronto set out to look for aluminum in the brains of Alzheimer’s subjects. Using autopsy samples, they measured aluminum levels in various parts of the brain and compared levels in Alzheimer’s patients with those in patients who died of unrelated health conditions. The Alzheimer’s patients had aluminum levels two to three times higher.

Aluminum Clad Fire Fighter, Kaiser Aluminum Advertising, 1950s

A number of studies were conducted shortly after, each one discounting the last, some claiming no correlation, others an obvious one. Critics of the supposed link say that association does not prove causation. The buildup, they argue, may be a consequence of Alzheimer’s, which may cause changes in the brain that cause the metal to accumulate in brain tissue. While the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services states that exposure to high levels of aluminum may result in respiratory problems, it does not state that exposure to very small levels is harmful. The current view of the Alzheimer’s Association is that “the findings (… ) do not convincingly demonstrate a causal relationship between aluminum and Alzheimer’s disease, and that no useful medical or public health recommendations can be made, at least at present.”

Pepsi Advertising, 1980s

Another issue directly connected to the aluminum health debate is BPA. BPA is found in the epoxy lining used in aluminum cans and bottles to prevent the leaching of potentially harmful properties from the metal into the food or drink within. that aluminum even NEEDS something to prevent it from coming into contact with your food or drink makes the container doubly dangerous, since BPA has long been known to have even worse health implications than what it’s put in place to protect you from! Bisphenol A is a chemical which can mimic human estrogen and which is linked to breast cancer and early puberty in women.

According to a study conducted by the Environmental Working Group, a wide variety of canned food was bought and tested. In more than half the items they found “200 times the government’s traditional safe level of exposure for industrial chemicals.” Still, there are no standards for BPA; it is allowed to be put in anything, and billions of pounds are produced each year. According to EWG: “Of all foods tested, chicken soup, infant formula, and ravioli had BPA levels of highest concern. Just one to three servings of foods with these concentrations could expose a woman or child to BPA at levels that caused serious adverse effects in animal tests.”

Reynolds Aluminum Advertising

CONTROVERSY AND ITS EFFECTS

Many cookware manufacturers have heeded the call of careful consumers, offering them pots and pans made of anodized aluminum. Anodizing involves thickening the naturally-oxidized surface of the metal by passing a direct current through it as it sits in an electrolytic solution (usually sulfuric acid). Afterward, the surface is sealed to fill in pores that form during the process and to prevent degradation. The result is a coating that is highly-resistant to corrosion, much harder, and can accept dyes readily. The leaching of aluminum residue is considerably lowered with this process. Socially responsible food manufacturers are also switching to canned goods with non-BPA linings due to growing public concerns over the obvious health issues.

Most studies seem to agree that low-level exposure to aluminum from food, air, and water, is not harmful. However there are clearly enough legitimate questions concerning its use in a number of important everyday applications to continue the debate and make us think twice before buying aluminum products. Whatever the case, it seems likely that this very valuable material will continue to be used until solid evidence shows us that without a doubt, it may not be best to chase your Rolaids with a can of tomato juice.

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Bascal Aluminum Tumbler, 1950s

The two main manufacturers of aluminum tumblers were Sunburst and the Italian company Bascal. The cups came in bright colors – purple, pink, red, blue, silver and a variety of other hues. The aluminum was anodized – a process that protects aluminum from oxidation, increases wear resistance, and promotes color retention. Still, these cups are not recommended for dishwashers, as their colors will fade faster than with hand washing.

Bascal

With their humble size, these cups are a bit out-dated for today’s soda lovers. They hold a mere 11 oz of liquid. The current 7-11 Super Gulp measures a mammoth 64 fluid oz.

Since last week’s article on aluminum ice cube trays, I’ve done a fair amount of additional research on the health concerns of aluminum. Just type in “aluminum health” or “aluminum kitchenware health” into Google, Yahoo, or one of the other search engines, and you’ll get thousands of results. The main objects of attack are deodorants, baking soda, cheap cheese (as used in cheeseburgers), and of course, cookware.

The discussions are very emotional (which is understandable, considering a the possible consequence of Alzheimer’s), but are also unfortunately rarely based on scientific studies. It seems studies backing up either side are hard to come by, or don’t appear to exist at all. What a pickle. We actually have an article devoted to the discussion of health issues concerning aluminum. Since I now own both an aluminum ice cube tray and this green tumbler, I really wanted to know if they’re safe for my tequila gimlet at this year’s first cookout.

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